water travel through

• About Organismal Biology
• Phylogenetic Trees and Geologic Time
• Prokaryotes: Bacteria, Archaea, and Early Life on Earth
• Eukaryotes and their Origins
• Land Plants
• Animals: Invertebrates
• Animals: Vertebrates
• Climate Change over Geologic Time
• Mass Extinctions and the Tree of Life over Geologic Time
• Multicellularity, Development, and Reproduction
• Animal Reproductive Strategies
• Animal Reproductive Structures and Functions
• Animal Development I: Fertilization & Cleavage
• Animal Development II: Gastrulation & Organogenesis
• Plant Reproduction
• Plant Development I: Tissue differentiation and function
• Plant Development II: Primary and Secondary Growth
• Principles of Chemical Signaling and Communication by Microbes
• Animal Hormones
• Plant Hormones and Sensory Systems
• Nervous Systems
• Animal Sensory Systems
• Motor proteins and muscles
• Motor units and skeletal systems
• Nutritional Needs and Principles of Nutrient Transport
• Nutrient Acquisition by Plants

Water Transport in Plants: Xylem

• Sugar Transport in Plants: Phloem
• Nutrient Acquisition by Animals
• Animal Gas Exchange and Transport
• Animal Circulatory Systems
• The Mammalian Cardiac Cycle
• Ion and Water Regulation and Nitrogenous Wastes in Animals
• The Mammalian Kidney: How Nephrons Perform Osmoregulation
• Plant and Animal Responses to the Environment

Learning Objectives

• Explain water potential and predict movement of water in plants by applying the principles of water potential
• Describe the effects of different environmental or soil conditions on the typical water potential gradient in plants
• Identify and differentiate between the three pathways water and minerals can take from the root hair to the vascular tissue
• Explain the three hypotheses explaining water movement in plant xylem, and recognize which hypothesis explains the heights of plants beyond a few meters
• Define transpiration and identify the source of energy that drives transpiration

Water Potential and Water Transport from Roots to Shoots

The information below was adapted from OpenStax Biology 30.5

The structure of plant roots, stems, and leaves facilitates the transport of water, nutrients, and products of photosynthesis throughout the plant. The phloem is the tissue primarily responsible for movement of nutrients and photosynthetic produces, and xylem is the tissue primarily responsible for movement of water). Plants are able to transport water from their roots up to the tips of their tallest shoot through the combination of water potential, evapotranspiration, and stomatal regulation – all without using any cellular energy!

Water potential is a measure of the potential energy in water based on potential water movement between two systems. Water potential can be defined as the difference in potential energy between any given water sample and pure water (at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperature). Water potential is denoted by the Greek letter Ψ ( psi ) and is expressed in units of pressure (pressure is a form of energy) called megapascals (MPa). The potential of pure water (Ψ pure H2O ) is defined as zero (even though pure water contains plenty of potential energy, this energy is ignored in this context).

Water potential can be positive or negative, and water potential is calculated from the combined effects of  solute concentration   (s) and  pressure (p) . The equation for this calculation is Ψ

An example of the effect of turgor pressure is the wilting of leaves and their restoration after the plant has been watered. Water is lost from the leaves via transpiration (approaching Ψ p  = 0 MPa at the wilting point) and restored by uptake via the roots.

This video provides an overview of water potential, including solute and pressure potential (stop after 5:05):

And this video describes how plants manipulate water potential to absorb water and how water and minerals move through the root tissues:

Impact of Soil and Environmental Conditions on the Plant Water Potential Gradient

As noted above, Ψ soil  must be > Ψ root  > Ψ stem  > Ψ leaf  > Ψ atmosphere in order for transpiration to occur (continuous movement of water through the plant from the soil to the air without equilibrating. This continuous movement of water relies on a water potential gradient , where water potential decreases at each point from soil to atmosphere as it passes through the plant tissues. However, this gradient can become disrupted if the soil becomes too dry, which can result in both decreased solute potential (due to the same amount of solutes dissolved in a smaller quantity of water) as well as decreased pressure potential in severe droughts (resulting from negative pressure or a “vacuum” in the soil due to loss of water volume). If water potential becomes sufficiently lower in the soil than in the plant’s roots, then water will move out of the plant root and into the soil.

Pathways of Water and Mineral Movement in the Roots

Once water has been absorbed by a root hair, it moves through the ground tissue and along its water potential gradient through one of three possible routes before entering the plant’s xylem:

• the  symplast : “sym” means “same” or “shared,” so symplast is “shared cytoplasm”.  In this pathway, water and minerals move from the cytoplasm of one cell into the next, via plasmodesmata that physically join different plant cells, until eventually reaching the xylem.
• the  transmembrane  pathway: in this pathway, water moves through water channels present in the plant cell plasma membranes, from one cell to the next, until eventually reaching the xylem.
• the  apoplast : “a” means “outside of,” so apoplast is “outside of the cell”. In this pathway, water and dissolved minerals never move through a cell’s plasma membrane but instead travel through the porous cell walls that surround plant cells.

Water and minerals that move into a cell through the plasma membrane has been “filtered” as it passes through water or other channels within the plasma membrane; however water and minerals that move via the apoplast do not encounter a filtering step until they reach a layer of cells known as the endodermis which separate the vascular tissue (called the stele in the root) from the ground tissue in the outer portion of the root. The endodermis is present only in roots, and serves as a checkpoint for materials entering the root’s vascular system. A waxy substance called suberin is present on the walls of the endodermal cells. This waxy region, known as the Casparian strip , forces water and solutes to cross the plasma membranes of endodermal cells instead of slipping between the cells. This process ensures that only materials required by the root pass through the endodermis, while toxic substances and pathogens are generally excluded.

Movement of Water Up the Xylem Against Gravity

How is water transported up a plant against gravity, when there is no “pump” or input of cellular energy to move water through a plant’s vascular tissue? There are three hypotheses that explain the movement of water up a plant against gravity. These hypotheses are not mutually exclusive, and each contribute to movement of water in a plant, but only one can explain the height of tall trees:

• Root pressure  pushes water up
• Capillary action draws water up within the xylem
• Cohesion-tension pulls water up the xylem

We’ll consider each of these in turn.

Root pressure relies on positive pressure that forms in the roots as water moves into the roots from the soil. Water moves into the roots from the soil by osmosis, due to the low solute potential in the roots (lower Ψs in roots than in soil). This intake o f water in the roots increases Ψp in the root xylem, “pushing” water up. In extreme circumstances, or when stomata are closed at night preventing water from evaporating from the leaves, root pressure results in guttation , or secretion of water droplets from stomata in the leaves. However, root pressure can only move water against gravity by a few meters, so it is not sufficient to move water up the height of a tall tree. 

Capillary action  (or capillarity) is the tendency of a liquid to move up against gravity when confined within a narrow tube (capillary). You can directly observe the effects of capillary action when water forms a meniscus when confined in a narrow tube. Capillarity occurs due to three properties of water:

• Surface tension , which occurs because hydrogen bonding between water molecules is stronger at the air-water interface than among molecules within the water.
• Adhesion , which is molecular attraction between “unlike” molecules. In the case of xylem, adhesion occurs between water molecules and the molecules of the xylem cell walls.
• Cohesion , which is molecular attraction between “like” molecules. In water, cohesion occurs due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules.

On its own, capillarity can work well within a vertical stem for up to approximately 1 meter, so it is not strong enough to move water up a tall tree.

This video provides an overview of the important properties of water that facilitate this movement:

The cohesion-tension  hypothesis is the most widely accepted model for movement of water in vascular plants. Cohesion-tension combines the process of capillary action with transpiration or the evaporation of water from the plant stomata. Transpiration is ultimately the main driver of water movement in xylem, combined with the effects of capillary action. The cohesion-tension model works like this:

• Transpiration (evaporation) occurs because stomata in the leaves are open to allow gas exchange for photosynthesis. As transpiration occurs, evaporation of water deepens the meniscus of water in the leaf, creating negative pressure (also called tension or suction).
• The tension created by transpiration “pulls” water in the plant xylem, drawing the water upward in much the same way that you draw water upward when you suck on a straw.
• Cohesion (water molecules sticking to other water molecules) causes more water molecules to fill the gap in the xylem as the top-most water is pulled toward end of the meniscus within the stomata.

Transpiration results in a phenomenal amount of negative pressure within the xylem vessels and tracheids, which are structurally reinforced with lignin to cope with large changes in pressure. The taller the tree, the greater the tension forces (and thus negative pressure) needed to pull water up from roots to shoots.

Follow this link to watch this video on YouTube for an overview of the different processes that cause water to move throughout a plant (this video is linked because it cannot be directly embedded within the textbook; if needed, the video url is https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8YlGyb0WqUw )

Transpiration Energy Source

The term “ transpiration ” has been used throughout this reading in the context of water movement in plants. Here we will define it as: evaporation of water from the plant stomata resulting in the continuous movement of water through a plant via the xylem, from soil to air, without equilibrating.

Transpiration is a passive process with respect to the plant, meaning that ATP is not required to move water up the plant’s shoots. The energy source that drives the process of transpiration is the extreme difference in water potential between the water in the soil and the water in the atmosphere. Factors that alter this extreme difference in water potential can also alter the rate of transpiration in the plant.

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How does water travel through a plant: the fascinating journey.

Are you curious about how water travels through a plant? It’s a fascinating process that allows plants to grow and thrive. Plants depend on water to carry out crucial functions in their lives, such as photosynthesis. Understanding how water travels through a plant can help us appreciate the intricacies of the natural world.

The Journey Begins: Water’s Entry into the Plant

Water enters a plant through its roots, which absorb water from the soil. Roots are equipped with tiny root hairs that increase the surface area of the root, helping it absorb more water. The water is then transported to the stem, which acts as a conduit for water movement.

Roots: The Primary Entry Point

The roots of a plant are the primary points of entry for water. The roots are covered in tiny root hairs that increase the surface area of the root, enabling it to absorb more water and nutrients from the surrounding soil. These root hairs are incredibly sensitive and can detect even small changes in moisture and nutrient levels in the soil. This allows the root to adjust its absorption rate and ensure it is getting enough water and nutrients to thrive.

The Stem: A Conduit for Water Movement

Once the water is absorbed by the roots, it is transported through the stem of the plant. The stem acts as a conduit for water movement and is equipped with specialized cells that help move water upwards to the leaves. These cells are called xylem and are arranged in long, tube-like structures that run the length of the stem. Xylem cells are incredibly strong and can withstand high levels of pressure, which helps move water against gravity.

The Journey Continues: How Water Moves through the Plant

Now that we understand how water enters a plant, let’s take a closer look at how it moves through the plant to reach its final destination in the leaves.

The Mechanism of Water Movement

The movement of water through a plant is driven by a process called transpiration. Transpiration occurs when water evaporates from the leaves of the plant, creating a negative pressure that pulls water up through the stem and into the leaves. This process is similar to the way water is drawn up into a straw when you suck on it.

The Role of the Leaves in Water Movement

Leaves play a crucial role in water movement through a plant. The leaves are equipped with tiny pores called stomata that allow for the exchange of gases. When the stomata open to allow for gas exchange, water vapor is released into the air. This release of water vapor creates a negative pressure that draws water up from the roots and through the stem to the leaves.

The Importance of Xylem Cells in Water Movement

Xylem cells play a critical role in water movement through a plant. These cells are arranged in long, tube-like structures that run the length of the stem, allowing water to be transported upwards to the leaves. The walls of xylem cells are incredibly strong and can withstand high levels of pressure, which helps move water against gravity. The cohesive and adhesive properties of water also play a crucial role in water movement through xylem cells.

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Water Movement in Plants

While water movement is crucial for plant growth and survival, it also comes with its own set of advantages and disadvantages. Let’s take a closer look at these below.

Water movement through a plant is vital for its growth and survival. It helps transport nutrients, minerals, and other essential substances throughout the plant, ensuring that all parts of the plant receive the necessary resources to thrive. Water movement also helps cool the plant and protect it from overheating, particularly on hot days. Additionally, water movement helps to maintain the turgor pressure of the plant cells, which is necessary for maintaining the structural integrity of the plant.

Disadvantages

Despite its many advantages, water movement through a plant also comes with some disadvantages. One of the most significant disadvantages is the risk of water loss through transpiration. As water is transported from the roots to the leaves, some of it is lost through evaporation, which can be a significant issue in hot and dry environments. Additionally, if the plant absorbs water that is contaminated with harmful substances such as heavy metals or pesticides, these substances can be transported throughout the plant, potentially causing harm.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the role of root hairs in water absorption.

Root hairs increase the surface area of the root, allowing it to absorb more water and nutrients from the surrounding soil.

What is the mechanism of water movement through a plant?

Water movement through a plant is driven by a process called transpiration, which occurs when water evaporates from the leaves of the plant, creating a negative pressure that pulls water up through the stem and into the leaves.

What is the role of xylem cells in water movement?

Xylem cells are specialized cells that help move water upwards to the leaves. These cells are arranged in long, tube-like structures that run the length of the stem.

What is the importance of turgor pressure in plants?

Turgor pressure is necessary for maintaining the structural integrity of the plant. It helps the plant to maintain its shape and prevents it from collapsing under its weight.

What are the advantages of water movement in plants?

Water movement in plants ensures that all parts of the plant receive the necessary resources to thrive, helps cool the plant, and maintains the turgor pressure of plant cells.

What are the disadvantages of water movement in plants?

The risk of water loss through transpiration and the potential transport of harmful substances are the most significant disadvantages of water movement in plants.

How does water get from the roots to the leaves?

Water is transported from the roots to the leaves through specialized cells called xylem.

What is transpiration?

Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from the leaves of a plant, creating a negative pressure that pulls water up through the stem and into the leaves.

How do plants cool themselves?

Plants cool themselves by releasing water vapor through stomata in their leaves.

Why are xylem cells important?

Xylem cells are critical for helping transport water and minerals throughout the plant.

What is the role of the stem in water movement?

The stem acts as a conduit for water movement and is equipped with specialized cells called xylem that help move water upwards to the leaves.

What are stomata?

Stomata are small pores on the surface of a plant’s leaves that allow for the exchange of gases.

How do plants absorb water from the soil?

Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots, which are covered in tiny root hairs that increase the surface area of the root, allowing it to absorb more water and nutrients from the surrounding soil.

Why is water movement important for plant growth?

Water movement is vital for plant growth because it helps transport nutrients, minerals, and other essential substances throughout the plant, ensuring that all parts of the plant receive the necessary resources to thrive.

What is the risk of water loss through transpiration?

The risk of water loss through transpiration is that it can cause dehydration and plant wilting, particularly in hot and dry environments.

Conclusion: A Journey Worth Understanding

Water movement through plants is a fascinating process that is essential for their growth and survival. Plants have evolved intricate mechanisms for transporting water from their roots to their leaves, ensuring that all parts of the plant receive the necessary resources to thrive. While water movement comes with its own set of challenges, understanding the complexity of this process can help us appreciate the natural world around us.

Encouraging Action

If you want to learn more about water movement in plants, consider taking a botany or plant biology class at your local university. You can also read more about this topic in scientific journals or textbooks.

Closing Disclaimer

The information presented in this article is intended for educational purposes only and should not be used as a substitute for professional medical or scientific advice. Always consult a qualified expert before making changes to your plant care routine or attempting to diagnose plant health issues.

Watch Video:How Does Water Travel Through a Plant: The Fascinating Journey

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Water Uptake and Transport in Vascular Plants

Why Do Plants Need So Much Water?

If water is so important to plant growth and survival, then why would plants waste so much of it? The answer to this question lies in another process vital to plants — photosynthesis. To make sugars, plants must absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) from the atmosphere through small pores in their leaves called stomata (Figure 1). However, when stomata open, water is lost to the atmosphere at a prolific rate relative to the small amount of CO 2 absorbed; across plant species an average of 400 water molecules are lost for each CO 2 molecule gained. The balance between transpiration and photosynthesis forms an essential compromise in the existence of plants; stomata must remain open to build sugars but risk dehydration in the process.

From the Soil into the Plant

Essentially all of the water used by land plants is absorbed from the soil by roots. A root system consists of a complex network of individual roots that vary in age along their length. Roots grow from their tips and initially produce thin and non-woody fine roots. Fine roots are the most permeable portion of a root system, and are thought to have the greatest ability to absorb water, particularly in herbaceous (i.e., non-woody) plants (McCully 1999). Fine roots can be covered by root hairs that significantly increase the absorptive surface area and improve contact between roots and the soil (Figure 2). Some plants also improve water uptake by establishing symbiotic relationships with mycorrhizal fungi, which functionally increase the total absorptive surface area of the root system.

Roots of woody plants form bark as they age, much like the trunks of large trees. While bark formation decreases the permeability of older roots they can still absorb considerable amounts of water (MacFall et al . 1990, Chung & Kramer 1975). This is important for trees and shrubs since woody roots can constitute ~99% of the root surface in some forests (Kramer & Bullock 1966).

Roots have the amazing ability to grow away from dry sites toward wetter patches in the soil — a phenomenon called hydrotropism. Positive hydrotropism occurs when cell elongation is inhibited on the humid side of a root, while elongation on the dry side is unaffected or slightly stimulated resulting in a curvature of the root and growth toward a moist patch (Takahashi 1994). The root cap is most likely the site of hydrosensing; while the exact mechanism of hydrotropism is not known, recent work with the plant model Arabidopsis has shed some light on the mechanism at the molecular level (see Eapen et al . 2005 for more details).

Roots of many woody species have the ability to grow extensively to explore large volumes of soil. Deep roots (>5 m) are found in most environments (Canadell et al . 1996, Schenk & Jackson 2002) allowing plants to access water from permanent water sources at substantial depth (Figure 3). Roots from the Shepard's tree ( Boscia albitrunca ) have been found growing at depths 68 m in the central Kalahari, while those of other woody species can spread laterally up to 50 m on one side of the plant (Schenk & Jackson 2002). Surprisingly, most arid-land plants have very shallow root systems, and the deepest roots consistently occur in climates with strong seasonal precipitation (i.e., Mediterranean and monsoonal climates).

Through the Plant into the Atmosphere

Flow = Δψ / R ,

which is analogous to electron flow in an electrical circuit described by Ohm's law equation:

i = V / R ,

where R is the resistance, i is the current or flow of electrons, and V is the voltage. In the plant system, V is equivalent to the water potential difference driving flow (Δψ) and i is equivalent to the flow of water through/across a plant segment. Using these plant equivalents, the Ohm's law analogy can be used to quantify the hydraulic conductance (i.e., the inverse of hydraulic R ) of individual segments (i.e., roots, stems, leaves) or the whole plant (from soil to atmosphere).

Upon absorption by the root, water first crosses the epidermis and then makes its way toward the center of the root crossing the cortex and endodermis before arriving at the xylem (Figure 4). Along the way, water travels in cell walls (apoplastic pathway) and/or through the inside of cells (cell to cell pathway, C-C) (Steudle 2001). At the endodermis, the apoplastic pathway is blocked by a gasket-like band of suberin — a waterproof substance that seals off the route of water in the apoplast forcing water to cross via the C-C pathway. Because water must cross cell membranes (e.g., in the cortex and at apoplastic barriers), transport efficiency of the C-C pathway is affected by the activity, density, and location of water-specific protein channels embedded in cell membranes (i.e., aquaporins). Much work over the last two decades has demonstrated how aquaporins alter root hydraulic resistance and respond to abiotic stress, but their exact role in bulk water transport is yet unresolved.

Once in the xylem tissue, water moves easily over long distances in these open tubes (Figure 5). There are two kinds of conducting elements (i.e., transport tubes) found in the xylem: 1) tracheids and 2) vessels (Figure 6). Tracheids are smaller than vessels in both diameter and length, and taper at each end. Vessels consist of individual cells, or "vessel elements", stacked end-to-end to form continuous open tubes, which are also called xylem conduits. Vessels have diameters approximately that of a human hair and lengths typically measuring about 5 cm although some plant species contain vessels as long as 10 m. Xylem conduits begin as a series of living cells but as they mature the cells commit suicide (referred to as programmed cell death), undergoing an ordered deconstruction where they lose their cellular contents and form hollow tubes. Along with the water conducting tubes, xylem tissue contains fibers which provide structural support, and living metabolically-active parenchyma cells that are important for storage of carbohydrates, maintenance of flow within a conduit (see details about embolism repair below), and radial transport of water and solutes.

When water reaches the end of a conduit or passes laterally to an adjacent one, it must cross through pits in the conduit cell walls (Figure 6). Bordered pits are cavities in the thick secondary cell walls of both vessels and tracheids that are essential components in the water-transport system of higher plants. The pit membrane, consisting of a modified primary cell wall and middle lamella, lies at the center of each pit, and allows water to pass between xylem conduits while limiting the spread of air bubbles (i.e., embolism) and xylem-dwelling pathogens. Thus, pit membranes function as safety valves in the plant water transport system. Averaged across a wide range of species, pits account for >50% of total xylem hydraulic resistance. The structure of pits varies dramatically across species, with large differences evident in the amount of conduit wall area covered by pits, and in the porosity and thickness of pit membranes (Figure 6).

After traveling from the roots to stems through the xylem, water enters leaves via petiole (i.e., the leaf stalk) xylem that branches off from that in the stem. Petiole xylem leads into the mid-rib (the main thick vein in leaves), which then branch into progressively smaller veins that contain tracheids (Figure 7) and are embedded in the leaf mesophyll. In dicots, minor veins account for the vast majority of total vein length, and the bulk of transpired water is drawn out of minor veins (Sack & Holbrook 2006, Sack & Tyree 2005). Vein arrangement, density, and redundancy are important for distributing water evenly across a leaf, and may buffer the delivery system against damage (i.e., disease lesions, herbivory, air bubble spread). Once water leaves the xylem, it moves across the bundle sheath cells surrounding the veins. It is still unclear the exact path water follows once it passes out of the xylem through the bundle sheath cells and into the mesophyll cells, but is likely dominated by the apoplastic pathway during transpiration (Sack & Holbrook 2005).

Mechanism Driving Water Movement in Plants

Stephen Hales was the first to suggest that water flow in plants is governed by the C-T mechanism; in his 1727 book Hales states "for without perspiration the [water] must stagnate, notwithstanding the sap-vessels are so curiously adapted by their exceeding fineness, to raise [water] to great heights, in a reciprocal proportion to their very minute diameters." More recently, an evaporative flow system based on negative pressure has been reproduced in the lab for the first time by a ‘synthetic tree' (Wheeler & Stroock 2008).

When solute movement is restricted relative to the movement of water (i.e., across semipermeable cell membranes) water moves according to its chemical potential (i.e., the energy state of water) by osmosis — the diffusion of water. Osmosis plays a central role in the movement of water between cells and various compartments within plants. In the absence of transpiration, osmotic forces dominate the movement of water into roots. This manifests as root pressure and guttation — a process commonly seen in lawn grass, where water droplets form at leaf margins in the morning after conditions of low evaporation. Root pressure results when solutes accumulate to a greater concentration in root xylem than other root tissues. The resultant chemical potential gradient drives water influx across the root and into the xylem. No root pressure exists in rapidly transpiring plants, but it has been suggested that in some species root pressure can play a central role in the refilling of non-functional xylem conduits particularly after winter (see an alternative method of refilling described below).

Disruption of Water Movement

Water transport can be disrupted at many points along the SPAC resulting from both biotic and abiotic factors (Figure 8). Root pathogens (both bacteria and fungi) can destroy the absorptive surface area in the soil, and similarly foliar pathogens can eliminate evaporative leaf surfaces, alter stomatal function, or disrupt the integrity of the cuticle. Other organisms (i.e., insects and nematodes) can cause similar disruption of above and below ground plant parts involved in water transport. Biotic factors responsible for ceasing flow in xylem conduits include: pathogenic organisms and their by-products that plug conduits (Figure 8); plant-derived gels and gums produced in response to pathogen invasion; and tyloses, which are outgrowths produced by living plant cells surrounding a vessel to seal it off after wounding or pathogen invasion (Figure 8).

Abiotic factors can be equally disruptive to flow at various points along the water transport pathway. During drought, roots shrink and lose contact with water adhering to soil particles — a process that can also be beneficial by limiting water loss by roots to drying soils (i.e., water can flow in reverse and leak out of roots being pulled by drying soil). Under severe plant dehydration, some pine needle conduits can actually collapse as the xylem tensions increase (Figure 8).

Water moving through plants is considered meta-stable because at a certain point the water column breaks when tension becomes excessive — a phenomenon referred to as cavitation. After cavitation occurs, a gas bubble (i.e., embolism) can form and fill the conduit, effectively blocking water movement. Both sub-zero temperatures and drought can cause embolisms. Freezing can induce embolism because air is forced out of solution when liquid water turns to ice. Drought also induces embolism because as plants become drier tension in the water column increases. There is a critical point where the tension exceeds the pressure required to pull air from an empty conduit to a filled conduit across a pit membrane — this aspiration is known as air seeding (Figure 9). An air seed creates a void in the water, and the tension causes the void to expand and break the continuous column. Air seeding thresholds are set by the maximum pore diameter found in the pit membranes of a given conduit.

Fixing the Problem

Failure to re-establish flow in embolized conduits reduces hydraulic capacity, limits photosynthesis, and results in plant death in extreme cases. Plants can cope with emboli by diverting water around blockages via pits connecting adjacent functional conduits, and by growing new xylem to replace lost hydraulic capacity. Some plants possess the ability to repair breaks in the water columns, but the details of this process in xylem under tension have remained unclear for decades. Brodersen et al . (2010) recently visualized and quantified the refilling process in live grapevines ( Vitis vinifera L.) using high resolution x-ray computed tomography (a type of CAT scan) (Figure 10). Successful vessel refilling was dependent on water influx from living cells surrounding the xylem conduits, where individual water droplets expanded over time, filled vessels, and forced the dissolution of entrapped gas. The capacity of different plants to repair compromised xylem vessels and the mechanisms controlling these repairs are currently being investigated.

References and Recommended Reading

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Beerling, D. J. & Franks, P. J. Plant science: The hidden cost of transpiration. Nature 464, 495-496 (2010).

Brodersen, C. R. et al . The dynamics of embolism repair in xylem: In vivo visualizations using high-resolution computed tomography Plant Physiology 154 , 1088-1095 (2010).

Brodribb, T. J. & Holbrook, N. M. Water stress deforms tracheids peripheral to the leaf vein of a tropical conifer. Plant Physiology 137 , 1139-1146 (2005)

Canadell, J. et al . Maximum rooting depth of vegetation types at the global scale. Oecologia 108, 583-595 (1996).

Choat, B., Cobb, A. R. & Jansen, S. Structure and function of bordered pits: New discoveries and impacts on whole-plant hydraulic function. New Phytologist 177, 608-626 (2008).

Chung, H. H. & Kramer, P. J. Absorption of water and "P through suberized and unsuberized roots of loblolly pine. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 5, 229-235 (1975).

Eapen, D. et al . Hydrotropism: Root growth responses to water. Trends in Plant Science 10, 44-50 (2005).

Hetherington, A. M. & Woodward, F. I. The role of stomata in sensing and driving environmental change. Nature 424, 901-908 (2003).

Holbrook, N. M. & Zwieniecki, M. A. Vascular Transport in Plants . San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2005.

Javot, H. & Maurel, C. The role of aquaporins in root water uptake. Annals of Botany 90, 1-13 (2002).

Kramer, P. J. & Boyer, J. S. Water Relations of Plants and Soils . New York, NY: Academic Press, 1995.

Kramer, P. J. & Bullock, H. C. Seasonal variations in the proportions of suberized and unsuberized roots of trees in relation to the absorption of water. American Journal of Botany 53, 200-204 (1966).

MacFall, J. S., Johnson, G. A. & Kramer, P. J. Observation of a water-depletion region surrounding loblolly pine roots by magnetic resonance imaging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 87 , 1203-1207 (1990).

McCully, M. E. Roots in Soil: Unearthing the complexities of roots and their rhizospheres. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 50, 695-718 (1999).

McDowell, N. G. et al . Mechanisms of plant survival and mortality during drought: Why do some plants survive while others succumb to drought? New Phytologist 178, 719-739 (2008).

Nardini, A., Lo Gullo, M. A. & Salleo, S. Refilling embolized xylem conduits: Is it a matter of phloem unloading? Plant Science 180, 604-611 (2011).

Pittermann, J. et al . Torus-margo pits help conifers compete with angiosperms. Science 310, 1924 (2005).

Sack, L. & Holbrook, N. M. Leaf hydraulics. Annual Review of Plant Biology 57, 361-381 (2006).

Sack, L. & Tyree, M. T. "Leaf hydraulics and its implications in plant structure and function," in Vascular Transport in Plants , eds. N. M. Holbrook & M. A. Zwieniecki. (San Diego, CA: Elsevier Academic Press, 2005) 93-114.

Schenk, H. J. & Jackson, R. B. Rooting depths, lateral root spreads, and belowground/aboveground allometries of plants in water-limited environments. Journal of Ecology 90, 480-494 (2002).

Sperry, J. S. & Tyree, M. T. Mechanism of water-stress induced xylem embolism. Plant Physiology 88, 581-587 (1988).

Steudle, E. The cohesion-tension mechanism and the acquisition of water by plants roots. Annual Review of Plant Physiological and Molecular Biology 52, 847-875 (2001).

Steudle, E. Transport of water in plants. Environmental Control in Biology 40, 29-37 (2002).

Takahashi, H. Hydrotropism and its interaction with gravitropism in roots. Plant Soil 165 , 301-308 (1994).

Tyree, M. T. & Ewers, F. W. The hydraulic architecture of trees and other woody plants. New Phytologist 119, 345-360 (1991).

Tyree, M. T. & Sperry, J. S. Vulnerability of xylem to cavitation and embolism. Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Molecular Biology 40, 19-38 (1989).

Tyree, M. T. & Zimmerman, M. H. Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap . 2nd ed. New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 2002.

Tyree, M. T. & Ewers, F. The hydraulic architecture of trees and other woody plants. New Phytologist 119, 345-360 (1991).

Wheeler, T. D. & Stroock, A. D. The transpiration of water at negative pressures in a synthetic tree. Nature 455, 208-212 (2008).

Wullschleger, S. D., Meinzer, F. C. & Vertessy, R. A. A review of whole-plant water use studies in trees. Tree Physiology 18, 499-512 (1998).

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How Water Moves Through Plants

Two Environmental Factors That Affect Transpiration

The importance of plants in everyday life cannot be understated. They provide oxygen, food, shelter, shade and countless other functions.

They also contribute to the movement of water through the environment. Plants themselves boast their own unique way of taking in water and releasing it into the atmosphere.

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Plants require water for biological processes. The movement of water through plants involves a pathway from root to stem to leaf, using specialized cells.

Water Transportation in Plants

Water is essential to the life of plants at the most basic levels of metabolism. In order for a plant to access water for biological processes, it needs a system to move water from the ground to different plant parts.

The chief water movement in plants is through osmosis from the roots to the stems to the leaves. How does water transportation in plants occur? Water movement in plants occurs because plants have a special system to draw water in, conduct it through the body of the plant and eventually to release it to the surrounding environment.

In humans, fluids circulate in bodies via the circulatory system of veins, arteries and capillaries. There is also specialized network of tissues that aids the process of nutrient and water movement in plants. These are called xylem and phloem .

What Is Xylem?

Plant roots reach into the soil and seek water and minerals for the plant to grow. Once the roots find water, the water travels up through the plant all the way to its leaves. The plant structure used for this water movement in plants from root to leaf is called xylem.

Xylem is a kind of plant tissue that is made out of dead cells that are stretched out. These cells, named tracheids , possess a tough composition, made of cellulose and the resilient substance lignin . The cells are stacked and form vessels, allowing water to travel with little resistance. Xylem is waterproof and has no cytoplasm in its cells.

Water travels up the plant through the xylem tubes until it reaches mesophyll cells, which are spongy cells that release the water through miniscule pores called stomata . Simultaneously, stomata also allow for carbon dioxide to enter a plant for photosynthesis. Plants possess several stomata on their leaves, particularly on the underside.

Different environmental factors can rapidly trigger stomata to open or close. These include temperature, carbon dioxide concentrate in the leaf, water and light. Stomata close up at night; they also close in response to too much internal carbon dioxide and to prevent too much water loss, depending on the air temperature.

Light triggers them to open. This signals the plant’s guard cells to draw in water. The guard cells’ membranes then pump out hydrogen ions, and potassium ions can enter the cell. Osmotic pressure declines when the potassium builds up, resulting in water attraction to the cell. In hot temperatures, these guard cells do not have as much access to water and can close up.

Air can also fill the xylem’s tracheids. This process, named cavitation , can result in tiny air bubbles that could impede water flow. To avoid this problem, pits in xylem cells allow for water to move while preventing gas bubbles from escaping. The rest of the xylem can continue moving water as usual. At night, when stomata close up, the gas bubble may dissolve into the water again.

Water exits as water vapor from the leaves and evaporates. This process is called transpiration .

What Is Phloem?

In contrast to xylem, phloem cells are living cells. They make up vessels as well, and their main function is to move nutrients throughout the plant. These nutrients include amino acids and sugars.

Over the course of the seasons, for example, sugars may be moved from the roots to the leaves. The process of moving nutrients throughout the plant is called translocation .

Osmosis in Roots

The tips of plant roots contain root hair cells. These are rectangular in shape and have long tails. The root hairs themselves can extend into the soil and absorb water in a process of diffusion called osmosis.

Osmosis in roots leads to water moving into root hair cells. Once water moves into the root hair cells, it can travel throughout the plant. Water first makes its way to the root cortex and passes through the endodermis . Once there, it can access the xylem tubes and allow for water transportation in plants.

There are multiple paths for water’s journey across roots. One method keeps water between cells so that the water does not enter them. In another method, water does cross cell membranes . It can then move out of the membrane to other cells. Yet another method of water movement from the roots involves water passing through cells via junctions between cells called plasmodesmata .

After passing through the root cortex, water moves through the endodermis, or waxy cellular layer. This is a sort of barrier for water and shunts it through endodermal cells like a filter. Then water can access the xylem and proceed toward the plant’s leaves.

Transpiration Stream Definition

People and animals breathe. Plants possess their own process of breathing, but it is called transpiration .

Once water travels through a plant and reaches its leaves, it can eventually release from the leaves via transpiration. You can see evidence of this method of “breathing” by securing a clear plastic bag around a plant’s leaves. Eventually you'll see water droplets in the bag, demonstrating transpiration from the leaves.

The transpiration stream describes the process of water transported from the xylem in a stream from root to leaf. It also includes the method of moving mineral ions around, keeping plants sturdy via water turgor, making sure leaves have enough water for photosynthesis and allowing the water to evaporate to keep leaves cool in warm temperatures.

Effects on Transpiration

When plant transpiration is combined with evaporation from land, this is called evapotranspiration . The transpiration stream results in approximately 10 percent of moisture release into the atmosphere of the Earth.

Plants can lose a significant amount of water through transpiration. Even though it is not a process that can be seen with the naked eye, the effect of water loss is measurable. Even corn can release as much as 4,000 gallons of water in a day. Large hardwood trees can release as much as 40,000 gallons daily.

Rates of transpiration vary depending on the status of the atmosphere around a plant. Weather conditions play a prominent role, but transpiration is also affected by soils and topography.

Temperature alone greatly affects transpiration. In warm weather, and in strong sun, the stomata are triggered to open and release water vapor. However, in cold weather, the opposite situation occurs, and the stomata will close up.

The dryness of the air directly affects transpiration rates. If the weather is humid and the air full of moisture, a plant is less likely to release as much water via transpiration. However, in dry conditions, plants readily transpire. Even the movement of wind can increase transpiration.

Different plants adapt to different growth environments, including in their rates of transpiration. In arid climates such as deserts, some plants can hold onto water better, such as succulents or cacti.

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• BBC Bitesize: Structure of Plants
• BBC Bitesize: Transport in Plants
• USGS Water Science School: What Is Evapotranspiration?
• University of Nebraska Lincoln: Plant & Soil Sciences eLibrary: Transpiration – Water Movement Through Plants

About the Author

J. Dianne Dotson is a science writer with a degree in zoology/ecology and evolutionary biology. She spent nine years working in laboratory and clinical research. A lifelong writer, Dianne is also a content manager and science fiction and fantasy novelist. Dianne features science as well as writing topics on her website, jdiannedotson.com.

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How does water move through soil?

In the basic water cycle, water falls on the land in some type of precipitation (rain or snow). It either is soaked into the ground or runs off into a body of water -- storm water or natural. Eventually, it returns to the atmosphere. But the story about water movement in soil is complex. Soil scientists call this topic "soil hydrology." The Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) May 15 Soils Matter blog post explains how soil texture, soil structure, and gravity influence water movement.

According to James Hartsig, a soil scientist with Duraroot Environmental Consulting, soil particles are either sand, silt, or clay. The relative amount of sand, silt, and clay in a given area makes up the soil texture.

And, different textures of soil will have different size pores between particles. "These pores exist in gaps where soils particles come together. The large pores of a sand-dominated soil, where the particles are larger might allow more water flow than the micropore space in a clay-dominated soil, where particles are smaller and held together tightly."

"Water will move in and out of these pores if they are connected to one another," says Hartsig. "These pores also allow water to enter the soil surface through infiltration, where it starts moving both laterally and vertically."

"By identifying and evaluating the soil physical characteristics of a given soil profile, soil scientists can determine the rate of water movement and if measures need to be taken to improve it," says Hartsig.

• Drought Research
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• Evaporation from plants
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Materials provided by Soil Science Society of America (SSSA) . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

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March 16, 2014 By Chelsey

Science for Kids: Exploring How Water Travels Through Leaves

Our latest science experiments for kids is all about leaves! We used colored water to observe how liquids move through the leaves of plants. This post also includes a free printable recording sheet.

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With all the new growth in our yard this spring, we’ve been spending lots of time outside observing all the changes. Lucy has especially been interested in the parts of plants and flowers , so we decided to look more closely at the leaves of plants and trees in our yard with a leaf experiment for kids . (Be sure to check out our other plant & flower activities: Bean Dissection Experiment , Observing Plant Growth with Bulbs , and An Invitation to Explore Flowers .)

Science for Kids: Exploring Leaves

In this science experiment for kids we’ll be observing how liquids travel through leaves over a period of three days. (This post contains affiliate links.)

Materials for Leaf Experiment

• Red food coloring
• Magnifying glass (optional)
• Free observation sheet (optional)

Procedure for Leaf Experiment

1. Start by taking a walk outdoors and collecting various leaves.

2. Snip off the bottom of each leaf stem. Then place each leaf in a glass filled about a third of the way with water.

3. Add red food coloring to the water. (We made our water a very dark shade of red to increase our chances of seeing changes in the leaves.)

4. Observe the leaves closely. (You can use a magnifying glass if you have one.) Record your observations of how they look on Day 1 of the experiment.

5. Observe them for the next two days. Be sure to record your observations in the correct area on your observation sheet.

What’s Going On?

You should notice the red color move slowly through the leaf.

Here’s a close-up of one leaf over three days.

The colored water was moving through the xylem tubes of the leaf. The xylem tubes of plants transport water and minerals up from the roots through the entire plant. (Their thick walls also provide support for the plant.)

Want to go even further?

Even more activities to inspire creativity and critical thinking for various ages.

• Try out this fun leaf experiment to find out why leaves change color .
• Use leaves to make leaf prints .
• Make some leaf rubbings to compare the shapes and patterns of leaves.
• Do a similar experiment using celery .
• Use a leaf as your canvas for artwork.

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Check out our newest book, steam kids with over 50 science, technology, engineering, art, and math activities to instill a love of learning and creativity in your child or students.

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• Water Matters

Where does water go when you drink it?

You've taken a sip of water - what happens next? Where does it go?

By: Aditi Pai

• Healthy Living
• Contaminants

Water is the foundation that all known life is built upon. From the most basic cells to the most complex animals, nothing that we know of can survive without it. Water serves a massive variety of essential functions, from helping us absorb nutrients to regulating body temperature. So, what exactly happens when you drink water, and where does it go when you drink it? 

In this article, we will explain water’s journey through the human body including the water digestion process and why water is so crucial to our survival and health.

What happens when you drink water?

When you drink water, it travels through your body in a quick but complex process as it has many more roles than just quenching your thirst. By hydrating well, your body can perform at its best. Water’s journey begins when it’s ingested through the mouth. 

The first big step in the process is the body registering hydration. After a few gulps of water, the brain will generally convince the body — prematurely – that the body has had enough to drink. This is an important hydration mechanism because it takes a long time for the water consumed to reach cells and provide them with sufficient hydration. If the brain registered hydration only after cells received water, people would be drinking way more than the body really needs. The communication between the brain and mouth directs people to stop drinking, even if the water hasn’t fully hydrated the system yet.

After you drink water, here’s where it goes:

1. The esophagus (a small pipe connected to the mouth)

2. The stomach

3. The small and large intestine

6. The liver

7. The heart

8. Blood again

10. Blood again 

11. The kidneys

12. The bladder

13. The urinary tract

And finally, water is excreted from the human body.

How does water leave your body?

Once the body utilizes all of the water it needs to function efficiently, it then begins the process of removing excess water. Water leaves the body in four main ways:

1. Through urination

Kidneys use water to filter toxins out of the body, but when the kidney has used as much as it needs; it gets rid of the rest through urine. Your hydration level determines how quickly your body will send water to your kidneys, which then goes to the bladder once it gets processed as urine. If you’re very hydrated, your body will send the excess water into the kidneys quickly because it’s not needed elsewhere. If you’re dehydrated, the water will be absorbed and sent to maintain vital functions before it eventually reaches the kidneys to remove toxins.

2. Through stool

Healthy fecal matter consists of 75% water and 25% solid matter. Once the small intestine has absorbed enough water to send throughout the body, it will pass the water along to the large intestine. When water reaches the large intestine, it will combine with solid matter to soften stool and aid digestion.

3. Through sweating

Sweat is a natural way the body regulates its temperature. It’s estimated that most individuals sweat at a rate of 500 to 700 mL per day , but people can sweat at a rate of up to one liter per hour during high-intensity exercise in a hot environment. While drinking water during exercise will help replace these fluids, the best strategy is to continuously drink water throughout the day to ensure adequate hydration.

4. Through breathing

The majority of the water you drink is absorbed into your bloodstream. Absorption occurs after water passes through the stomach and into the small intestine. The small intestine, at around 20 feet long , is the organ primarily responsible for water absorption through its walls and into the bloodstream. From here, water will travel to cells across the body, providing them with the hydration to perform daily functions efficiently.

The large intestine also absorbs some water to support digestion. A lot of people wonder how long water takes to digest but the thing is, water isn’t technically digested - it’s absorbed. However, it’s a crucial element for digestion, especially when digesting protein . Water should always be consumed with meals so that your body can properly digest and absorb the nutrients from food. Properly filtered water is ideal because it does not contain harmful chemicals and contaminants that can upset the digestive process. Fortunately, several types of water filters exist now for healthier and safer drinking water.

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How long does it take for water to go through your system?

The short answer: it’s different for everyone. The amount of water absorbed in the stomach and how quickly water is absorbed depends, in part, on how much has been eaten. If someone is drinking water on an empty stomach, they are more likely to experience a faster rate of water absorption – as quick as 5 minutes after taking a drink. Whereas, if a person has eaten a lot of food before they drink water, the speed of absorption will slow down accordingly and absorption could take up to a few hours.

The average person can process about 33.8 ounces of fluid per hour , but only 20% of the water that you drink actually makes it through the entire process to the bladder. Along the journey, water will stop to perform many other necessary errands like lubricating organs, removing waste, regulating body temperature, and aiding nutrient absorption. 

Many people wonder how long it takes to pee after drinking water, but it depends on a variety of factors. Generally, it takes your body 9 to 10 hours to produce 2 cups of urine. A properly hydrated person with an almost full bladder will need to urinate between five to fifteen minutes after drinking water. But for someone who’s dehydrated with an empty bladder, it could sometimes be up to nine hours before needing to urinate.

How long does it take for water to flush out toxins?

It depends on how hydrated a person is, as your body will likely eliminate toxic substances through urination. This is primarily the job of the kidneys, but to filter toxins efficiently, kidneys require a large amount of fresh water. If the kidney does not receive enough water, it could lead to health concerns including kidney stones and other kidney-related diseases. 

Fortunately, one way the kidneys inform someone of whether they’re providing their body with enough water is by concentrating the amount of water expelled through urine – thus changing the color of urine to bright yellow. Drinking filtered water is one of the best ways to support your kidneys because it can remove some of the toxins, reducing the strain on your body.

Filtered water can indeed make the water absorption process easier since there are fewer toxins and contaminants. Unfortunately, many contaminants are found in tap water including potential toxins. Because water affects so many parts of our bodies and health, it is crucial to drink healthier, filtered water that’s free of harmful toxins and contaminants.

One of the most effective water filters removes most harmful particulates while remineralizing the water. Aquasana’s SmartFlow® Reverse Osmosis filter effectively removes up to 90 harmful contaminants including more than 99.99% of asbestos and cysts, 99% of lead and microplastics, 96% of chlorine and arsenic, and 90% of fluoride in addition to several other tap water hazard in addition to a remineralizer to restore healthy minerals lost in the filtration process.

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Follow a Drip Through the Water Cycle

Online interactive water cycle diagram, an activity for three different age groups, the water cycle for schools and kids, fundamentals of the water cycle.

You may be familiar with how water is always cycling around, through, and above the Earth, continually changing from liquid water to water vapor to ice. One way to envision the water cycle is to follow a drop of water around as it moves on its way. Read on to learn more about the journey.

•   Water Science School HOME   •  The Water Cycle   •

You may be familiar with how water is always cycling around, through, and above the Earth, continually changing from liquid water to water vapor to ice . One way to envision the water cycle is to follow a drop of water around as it moves on its way. I could really begin this story anywhere along the cycle, but I think the ocean is the best place to start, since that is where most of Earth's water is.

If the drop wanted to stay in the ocean then it shouldn't have been sunbathing on the surface of the sea. The heat from the sun found the drop, warmed it, and  evaporated  it into water vapor . It rose (as tiny "dropettes") into the air and continued rising until strong winds aloft grabbed it and took it hundreds of miles until it was over land. There, warm updrafts coming from the heated land surface took the dropettes (now water vapor) up even higher, where the air is quite cold.

When the vapor got cold it changed back into it a liquid (the process is  condensation ). If it was cold enough, it would have turned into tiny ice crystals, such as those that make up cirrus clouds. The vapor condenses on tiny particles of dust, smoke, and salt crystals to become part of a cloud .

After a while our drop combined with other drops to form a bigger drop and fell to the earth as  precipitation . Earth's gravity helped to pull it down to the surface. Once it starts falling there are many places for water drops to go. Maybe it would land on a leaf in a tree, in which case it would probably evaporate and begin its process of heading for the clouds again. If it misses a leaf there are still plenty of places to go.

The drop could land on a patch of dry dirt in a flat field. In this case it might  sink into the ground  to begin its journey down into an underground  aquifer  as groundwater. The drop will continue moving (mainly downhill) as groundwater , but the journey might end up taking tens of thousands of years until it finds its way back out of the ground. Then again, the drop could be pumped out of the ground via a water well  and be  sprayed on crops  (where it will either evaporate, be taken up by the roots of and be incorporated into the plant, flow along the ground into a stream , or go back down into the ground). Or the well water containing the drop could end up in a baby's drinking bottle or be sent to wash a car or a dog. From these places, it is back again either into the air, down sewers into rivers and eventually into the ocean, or back into the ground.

But our drop may be a land-lover. Plenty of precipitation ends up staying on the earth's surface to become a component of  surface water . If the drop lands in an urban area it might hit your house's roof, go down the gutter and your driveway to the curb. If a dog or squirrel doesn't lap it up it will run down the curb into a storm sewer and end up in a small creek. It is likely the creek will flow into a larger river and the drop will begin its journey back towards the ocean.

If no one interferes, the trip will be fast (speaking in "drop time") back to the ocean, or at least to a  lake  where evaporation could again take over. But, with billions of people worldwide needing water for most everything, there is a good chance that our drop will get picked up and used before it gets back to the sea.

A lot of surface water is used for  irrigation . Even more is used by  power-production facilities  to cool their electrical equipment. From there it might go into the cooling tower to be reused for cooling or evaporated. Talk about a quick trip back into the atmosphere as water vapor — this is it. But maybe a town pumped the drop out of the river and into a water tank. From here the drop could go on to help wash your dishes, fight a fire, water the tomatoes, or flush your toilet. Maybe the local steel mill will grab the drop, or it might end up at a fancy restaurant mopping the floor.

The possibilities are endless — but it doesn't matter to the drop, because eventually it will get back into the environment. From there it will again continue its cycle into and then out of the clouds, this time maybe to end up in the water glass of the President of the United States.

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Where does water go after drinking it? The Explanation of Water Absorption into the Body

March 06, 2019 --> • updated -->

All forms of living things need water to survive. Water is accessible from a water fountain, a rain cloud, or even from a plastic bottle. We can all agree that without water, your body would stop working properly.

As you know, water makes up more than half of your body weight. But, how long could your body last without water? Did you know that a person can go for more than three weeks without food? But water is a different story. Unlike food, the maximum time a person can go without water seems to be only a week.

In this article, you’ll find out not only the number of benefits your body can get in drinking water but, most importantly, where it goes after drinking it. How does water absorb into a body? So, don’t stop reading until the bottom of this page to get what you want.

The Water and Your Body

The average body of an adult human being contains over 70% water. Most of the water in the human body is contained inside our cells, two-thirds of the water you drink. Did you know that our billions of cells must have water to live?  

• The total amount of water in our body is found in three main locations: within our cells (two-thirds of the water), in the space between our cells and our blood (one-third of the water).
• The amount of water a body contains varies according to certain contexts: The body of a newborn is composed of more water (75%) than that of an older person (50%).
• The body holds on to water when you don't have enough or gets rid of it if you have too much. If your pee is very light yellow, you are well hydrated. When your pee is very dark yellow, it's probably time to drink up.
• Water act as a lubricant to organs, remove waste, regulate body temperature, and aids the body in nutrient absorption.

  How much water is in the human body?

When a person drinks water, the body absorbs it right then, and it has specific parts it’s stored. The more muscular a body is, the more water it contains. On the contrary, the more fats in the body, the less water the body contains – as body fat has little water.

Additionally, all our vital organs contain different amounts of water: the brain, the lungs, the heart, the liver, and the kidneys contain a large quantity of water – between 65 to 85% depending on the organ, while bones contain less water, about 30%.

Water’s Journey Through Your Body

One of the main differences between eating food and drinking water is that when food is consumed, it’s digested, whereas water is absorbed into the body’s system.

Water’s journey first begins in your mouth.

The first big step the body takes is registering hydration through your mouth. After a few gulps of water, the brain will convince the body– that the body has had enough to drink.

This is an important hydration mechanism because it takes a long time for the water that was drunk to reach cells and provide them with sufficient hydration. If the brain registered hydration only after cells received water, people would be drinking way more than the body needs.

The communication between the brain and mouth allows someone to stop drinking at the appropriate time, even if the water hasn’t fully hydrated the system yet.

Water travels through Your esophagus.

It is a small pipe connected to the mouth and lands in the stomach. This is where the process of water absorption into the bloodstream begins.

Water and Your Stomach

The amount of water absorbed in the stomach and how quickly water is absorbed depends, in part, on how much has been eaten. If someone is drinking water on an empty stomach, they are more likely to experience a faster water absorption rate.

Whereas, if a person has eaten a lot of food before they drink water, the speed of absorption will slow down accordingly, and absorption could take up to a few hours.

Water and Your Small Intestine

At around 20 feet long, the small intestine efficiently absorbs water into the cell membrane and bloodstream. From here, water will travel to cells across the body, providing them with the hydration to perform daily functions efficiently.

But the journey of the water you drink doesn’t stop there. Once absorbed into the body, water aids some vital functions.

Water and Your Large Intestine

The large intestine is the key center for water reabsorption rather than the stomach and the small intestine because of the following reasons:

It prevents most of the paracellular flow of water and electrolytes because of tight junctions, unlike in the small intestine. This prevents the backflow of electrolytes and water from the chyle to the blood.

 It mainly concentrates the fecal matter, so reabsorption of water and electrolytes becomes its main function.

Water and Your Kidneys

One such task is filtering toxins. This is primarily the job of your kidneys, but kidneys require a large amount of water to filter toxins efficiently. If the kidney does not receive enough water, it could lead to health concerns, including kidney stones and other kidney-related diseases.

Fortunately, one way the kidneys inform someone of whether they’re providing their body with enough water is by concentrating the amount of water expelled through urine – thus changing the color of urine to bright yellow.

Although our kidneys help filter bad toxins in our body, there’s another way to help you keep clean and safe drinking water. With a water filtration system at home, Berkey Water Filter  reduces contaminants and harmful pollutants, and it's ideal for your home. 

Here are a few reasons why Berkey Water Filters are a good choice: 

• Berkey removes contaminants, including chlorine and fluoride
• It's affordable
• Low Maintenance and easy assembly
• Berkey water filters are travel-friendly, and
• Very useful in Emergency Preparedness

 So, get started with your Berkey Water Filters now to enjoy every glass of water you drink.

Related articles:

How to Remove Chlorine And Chloramine From Drinking Water Naturally. Best Filtration Without Chemicals 

Does Berkey Water Filter Remove Lead From Drinking Water?

Water and Your Brain

Water is also sent to the brain, where it provides hydration to brain cells. Here, water is used to maintain certain cerebral functions. Studies have shown that people experience impaired short-term memory function and visual-motor skills without the appropriate level of hydration.

How does excess water removal from the body?

Once the human body uses up all the water it needs to function efficiently, it removes excess water. Water leaves the body in four main ways: the kidneys, skin, large intestine, and mouth. Additionally:

• The most high-profile exit strategy of water is through the kidneys via urine.
• Another exit point for water is through stools.
• When someone exercises or heats, small droplets of water, your sweat.
• Small droplets of water also exit the body via the breath.

When You Drink Water, What Happens in Your Body?

  water eases thirst before it hits the bloodstream.

That refreshing feeling after you've taken a long gulp of water? It's far too rapid to be an immediate reaction to your drink — your body is just filling in the gaps.

Thirst is triggered by the brain's detection that cells are shrinking as the body uses up its water, but you'll likely feel sated before the cells are filled with water again.

Why? It's something called an anticipatory reflex. The taste buds and gut register how much water you've ingested and make you feel sated so that you'll stop drinking at an appropriate point.

Water Kick-Starts Your Kidneys

Kidneys are the body's filtration system, but they require a copious amount of water to do their job properly and boot unwanted toxins out. Without proper hydration, the kidneys cannot filter the blood properly, and you risk all kinds of hilarious nasties, from kidney stones to disease.

The kidneys can do a little to save water — by concentrating your urine to the color of a tangerine — but beyond that, you need water to keep it working. Putting the kidneys under stress is a terrible idea — and, interestingly, they have a minimum amount of water that's required to be able to function properly.

The usual thinking is eight glasses a day. People who've had a kidney stone need to drink a massive two to three liters (up to two-thirds of a gallon) a day to reduce their risk of developing another one.

  Water Helps Your Cognitive Performance

Water is essential to the brain's performance — and some unfortunate souls had to prove it in a series of studies about how the brain reacts to dehydration. Being deprived of water leads to short-term memory damage, working memory impairment, and a downgrade in your visual-motor skills.

  Water Reduces Pain

Do your knees ache? It’s time to pick up your water bottle. Getting your proper amount of fluids is crucial to maintaining the right amount of cushioning in your joints. 

You don't have water balloons in your elbows and knees, though — you have something called synovial fluid , which is designed to lubricate the cartilage that protects your joints. 

Unfortunately, replenishing your water levels won't necessarily kick the synovial fluid into overdrive and always leave you with seamless joints. But good hydration is a necessary ingredient in keeping your joints happy.

Water serves some essential functions to keep us all going:

• A vital nutrient to the life of every cell acts first as a building material.
• It regulates our internal body temperature by sweating and respiration
• The carbohydrates and proteins that our bodies use as food are metabolized and transported by water in the bloodstream;
• It assists in flushing waste mainly through urination
• acts as a shock absorber for a brain, spinal cord, and fetus
• forms saliva
• lubricates joints

How Much Water is Enough?

Because water is so important, you might wonder if you're drinking enough. There is no magic amount of water that kids need to drink every day. The amount kids need on their age, body size, health, and activity level, plus the weather.

Most of the time, kids drink something with meals and should drink when they're thirsty. But if you're sick, or it's warm out, or you're exercising, you'll need more. Be sure to drink some extra water when you're out in warm weather , especially while playing sports or exercising.

When you drink is also essential. If you're going to sports practice, a game, or just working out or playing hard, drink water before, during, and after playing. Don't forget your water bottle . You can't play your best when you're thinking about how thirsty you are!

You can help your body by drinking when you're thirsty and drinking extra water when you exercise and when it's warm out. Your body will be able to do all of its wonderful, and you'll feel great!

Did You Know...

Drinking excessive amounts of water without replacing salt can be harmful, occasionally even in healthy people.

What happens when you drink too much water?

While water intake is highly significant in our body, too much water drinking may lead to overhydration . It occurs when there is an excess of water in the body more than it loses. 

Overhydration typically results in low sodium levels in the blood called hyponatremia , which can be fatal. Nevertheless, drinking a lot of water usually does not cause overhydration if the pituitary gland, kidneys, liver, and heart function normally. To exceed the body's ability to excrete water, a young adult with normal kidney function would have to drink more than 6 gallons of water a day regularly.

Who is prone to overhydration? 

People with psychogenic polydipsia, people with problems in their organs.

Overhydration may likewise result from the disorder of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion . In this disorder, the pituitary organ secretes an excessive amount of vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hormone), stimulating the kidneys to save water when that isn't required.

Symptoms of Overhydration

Brain cells are especially prone to overhydration and too low sodium levels in the blood. Once overhydration happens gradually and is gentle or moderate, brain cells have the opportunity to adjust, so just mild symptoms (assuming any) like distractibility and lethargy might follow. At the point when overhydration happens rapidly, vomiting and issues with balance grow. When overhydration worsens, confusion, seizures, or coma might develop. 

If overhydration happens and blood volume is average, the excess water moves typically into the cells, and tissue expanding (edema) doesn't happen. If extra blood volume happens, liquid can gather in the lungs and lower legs.

Diagnosis of Overhydration

• A doctor's examination
• Blood and urine tests

Doctors attempt to recognize overhydration (a lot of water) and excess liquid in the blood (an excessive amount of salt and increased blood volume) by examining the individual for weight gain and indications of edema and doing blood and urine tests to take a look at the concentrations of electrolytes.

Treatment of Overhydration

• Restriction of fluid intake
• Treatment of the cause of overhydration

Regardless of the reason for overhydration, liquid admission typically should be limited (only as advised by doctors). Drinking less than a quart of liquids daily ordinarily brings about progress for more than a few days. When overhydration happens with excess blood volume because of heart, liver, or kidney disease, limiting sodium's admission is likewise helpful because sodium makes the body retain water. 

Medications that will, in general, cause overhydration are stopped. At times, doctors prescribe diuretics to build the discharge of sodium and water in the urine. Different kinds of medications likewise can expand water discharge and treat overhydration when blood volume is average. These medications are usually used when an individual is in the hospital and can be carefully checked.

Drink Water Now! The best ways to drink water for healthy bodies

1. Take it slow and steady

It’s been proven that drinking water slowly throughout the day makes you more hydrated than drinking lots fast. This makes sense as your intestines can only process so much water at a time, and if it is passed through too fast, you’ll lose out on it.

2. Water with additives

Lemon in water has well-known health benefits, including aiding your digestion, hydrating your lymph system, having a load of nutrients including potassium and vitamin C, reducing inflammation, and giving you an energy boost.

It is a common practice to drink warm water with 1/2 a lemon squeezed into it first thing in the morning, then after about 30 minutes, have your breakfast. This process is supposed to improve your energy, cleanse your system and provide better digestion for your breakfast, giving you energy throughout the day.

  Additional feature:

A way to have great tasting, healthy water available when your home uses a water pitcher with an infuser.

 This simple device can be kept in your fridge and infuses your water with whatever you put in it, like fruit, without having the pieces of fruit fall into your glass. For example, adding lemons and cucumber slices will give you a healthy drink that tastes great.

3. Right and proper timing

Since we now know that most water is absorbed within 120 minutes, we can assume that drinking a glass of water about 2 hours before heavy sports will give us the best benefit, as your body will be the most hydrated then.

 It is also best to drink a glass of water first thing in the morning since you’ve gone for about 8 hours without a drink. And for those with a stronger bladder, drinking a glass before bed helps your body stay hydrated while you sleep. But if nightly bathroom visits are already a factor for you, take it easy before bed.

To make drinking water easier, keep it by you all day, whether at the office with a bottle that you sip from all day and can refill, or at home with a glass of water on your counter that you make yourself drink from every time you pass it. Having a bottle of water in your car is great, too, especially when you’re out doing chores and can’t get a good drink in for a few hours.

4. Sit down, drink your water

While there is no scientific proof to let us know if you should drink water sitting down or standing up, it is without a doubt that standing up and drinking water can prompt joint pain, and different illnesses are a myth. But, it is highly recommended to sit down and drink water since posture can take part in how our body gets what we feed it. When we are standing or walking, the blood flow is high towards our hands and legs, demonstrating prevention for the water to reach the digestive system appropriately.

5. Sip on the water to flush down the meal

Drinking water with food helps digestion. Water is particularly imperative to drink close to high-fiber food sources. Fiber travels through your digestive system and absorbs water, helping form stools and advance regularity. So in case, you're loading your plate with plant-based food sources, as you ought to, sip on water, as well.

6. Salt it up!

Although sodium is atypical by many (as it should be once consumed in large amounts), having too little sodium in your body can be similarly harmful. Salt keeps our cells hydrated and aids nutrients going from our small intestine to the rest of our bodies. Without appropriate salt intake, your cells are not able to keep water. Therefore, they're not very significant at hydrating. Thus, in case you're burning through salt with your water (even a tiny pinch will do), you're helping your body with retaining water all the more effectively.

The Best Water Through Your Body

Now that we better see how water travels through the body and why water is so vital to your physical and mental health, we need to discover approaches to get the ideal water. Water filters are probably the most straightforward approach to reliably drink safe, healthy water without harmful toxins and contaminants.

Your body's a powerful tool. However, it needs your assistance. With all the things above-mentioned, give it the possible opportunity to absorb all the goodness from your water! In any case, ensure it's extraordinary water. 

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23 Types of Water Transport To Keep You Afloat

There are many different types of water transport that form part of the wider transport industry. In this article I will teach you what these different types of water transport are and how they work. Ready to learn more? Read on…

What is water transport?

Runabout boat, pontoon boat, rigid inflatable boat, ship’s tender, cruise ship, personal watercraft, types of water transport- further reading.

Water transport is any form of transportational vehicle which is primarily used to travel by water. There are many different types of water transport, used for both cargo and passengers, which travel on many different waterways. You can find out more about all of the different types below…

One of the main types of water transport is a boat. This is the most likely form of vehicle you would use to travel on water, regardless of whether you’re on a canal or in the middle of the ocean . However, there are of course a lot of different types of boats. We can generally split boats into three categories:

• Unpowered or human-powered boats 
• Sailboats 
• Motorboats 

Each category has many boats within it, all serving different purposes.

These boats, as the name suggests, have a deck area. They are generally small, but have seating areas for groups of people – their main purpose is for leisure and sightseeing, or as a vessel from which to enter the water for swimming or other watersports. With a V-shaped hull, these boats are usually 25-35 feet in length.

A catamaran is a type of boat which has two hulls. They are generally small-ish boats used for fishing or cruising, but this style of boat has been known to be used for car ferries too given their stability. 

As the name suggests, these are boats on which people live. They are not motorised because they are usually moored in one place, floating. Often they are built to look more like a house than a boat, but some definitely retain their boat style. You tend to find them on canals or larger lakes, and many people live in houseboats year round. They are also rented out to tourists looking for something a bit different!

These small open boats are an entry-level kind of vessel, used for casual boating and sporting activities. They have a steering wheel and small control panel.

A lifeboat is a small rigid or inflatable boat, generally attached to a larger boat or ship, used for sea rescue when necessary. Ships legally have to have a certain number of lifeboats corresponding with the number of people on board. 

This type of boat is used mostly on inland waters, and they are incredibly stable due to their wide and flat shape. They rely on tubes known as pontoons to float on the water. With sensible seating, they are used for sightseeing and fishing.

A barge is a type of water transport used on canals – it is also often called a canal boat. They are long and flat-bottomed, and used either for carrying cargo or as recreational passenger boats. The insides can fit beds, kitchens, seating areas and more.

An airboat is a small, flat-bottomed vessel which is powered by an aircraft-style propeller. They are used for tourist and fishing purposes in marshy and shallow waters – particularly the Everglades in Florida .

These are mostly used for tourist purposes now, particularly on the Nile. They are Eastern Mediterranean wooden sailing boats, seating around 10 passengers with 2-3 crew members.

A hovercraft is one of a few types of water transport which can also travel over land, through mud and on ice. They use special blowers in order to produce a large volume of air under the hull which is slightly above atmospheric pressure – this lifts the vessel allowing it to move. They have many uses.

This is a small narrow boat propelled by the use of double-ended paddles. They are most commonly used for recreational purposes on small bodies of water.

A liner is a very large boat designed to transport cargo or passengers long-distance from point A to point B, usually without stopping unless there is a need to refuel. They are generally not used these days, with flying being the optimal choice. The RMS Queen Mary 2 is the only ocean liner still in regular use, often completing trans-Atlantic journeys.

There is no standard definition of a yacht but they are generally 33ft+ in length with overnight facilities, used for pleasure and usually the height of luxury. You tend to find yachts moored at places like Puerto Banus in Marbella, or Cannes in France . People often make an activity out of celebrity-yacht-spotting!

A ferry is a type of boat generally used to carry passengers short-distance from A-B. They are used within waterside cities as public transport, such as the ferries in Venice or the ‘ferry across the Mersey’ in Liverpool. There are also ferries which travel a longer distance, from the UK to France for example, which also hold cars; these tend to have many more amenities on board such as cabins for sleeping, restaurants and bars, small cinemas and more.

This type of boat is small and flat-bottomed with a square-cut bow; it is propelled by the use of a pole which is pushed against the riverbed. The person doing this is called a ‘punter’, and they will be stood on the boat at the back. Punts are used for recreational purposes mostly.

Also known as a RIB, these tiny boats are – as the name suggests – rigid and inflatable. They are lightweight, high-capacity and unsinkable. RIBs are usually used as work boats; however, they are also used by scuba divers to reach dive sites which are in areas where larger boats can’t get to for whatever reason. They travel fast.

This is one of the most useful types of water transport because a ship’s tender is used to transport people or goods from a large ship to a dock, where there is not enough space to dock the ship itself.

A water taxi is used like land public transport to get people from one point to various other points. They will make multiple stops. Water taxis are used for commuting and also by tourists; you’ll find them in cities like Venice, Liverpool, Istanbul, Brussels, New Orleans and Budapest.

Other types of water transport

There are other types of water transport which are not technically boats, or are not referred to as such. This might be because they’re too big for that category, or too small, or simply operate in an entirely different manner.

A ship is a large water vessel, reserved for travelling the oceans. Ships generally have to be 95ft+ long; they can typically stay at sea for much longer than boats and, as the saying goes, a ship could carry a boat but a boat could not carry a ship. All of that being said, there is no set legal definition of a ship versus a boat.

There are many types of ships, including but not limited to:

• High-speed craft
• Off-shore oil vessels
• Motorised fishing trawlers
• Factory ships
• Cable layers
• Cry cargo ships
• Liquid cargo ships
• Passenger carrying vessels
• Special purpose vessels
• Aircraft carriers
• Minesweepers
• Deep sea survey vessels

One of the most well-known and exciting types of water transport is the cruise ship; they are, obviously, classed as ships – they are passenger carrying vessels, designed for staying at sea for an extended period of time. They differ from liners in that they stop at multiple ports as part of a round-trip. On board you’ll find a range of amenities including cabins, restaurants, shops, theatres, cinemas, bars, nightclubs, tattoo shops, water slides, go-karting tracks and much more. Not ever cruise ship has all of these, but this is just an example of how incredible cruise ships can be.

You can read more about cruising in my article, The 8 Major Types of Cruise.

A surfboard is a tricky one to categorise as one of the types of water transport, but it is listed on many websites as being a form of transport despite not generally being used to go from point A to point B in any way. A surfboard is a narrow plank used to allow surfers to ride a wave for fun.

A PWC is also known as a Jet Ski, which is actually a brand name (owned by Kawasaki) which has become synonymous with this kind of vessel. These differ from boats in that you stand or sit ON them, not in them. They are used for recreation mostly. However, law enforcement also use them due to their speed – and PWC fishing is a fast-growing industry.

And the last of the types of water transport is the submarine. These vessels are used for underwater exploration. There are small two-person submarines which can be submerged for a couple of hours, and there are massive submarines which remain under the water for up to 6 months. These vessels can go much deeper than human divers, allowing for discovery and anti-surface warfare.

If you enjoyed this article on the different types of transport then I am sure that you will love these too!

• Cruise tourism explained: What, why and where
• 15 Types of Rail Transport To Take You Away
• 20 Popular Types of Hotels Around The World
• The 3 Major Types Of Airlines + How They Work
• 50 types of transport from around the world

Science in School

How water travels up trees teach article.

Author(s): Clare van der Willigen

Why do giant redwoods grow so tall and then stop? It all has to do with how high water can travel up their branches.

The redwoods of northern California, Sequoia sempervirens , are the tallest trees in the world and can grow to heights of more than 110 m. However, what finally limits their height is still debated.

The most popular theory is the ‘hydraulic limitation hypothesis’ ( Ryan & Yoder, 1997 ), which suggests that as trees grow taller, it becomes more difficult to supply water to their leaves. This hydraulic limitation results in reduced transpiration and less photo-synthesis, causing reduced growth.

In tall trees, water supply can be limited by two factors: distance and gravity. Tall trees have a longer path- way of transport tissue – known as xylem – which increases the difficulty of water to travel, something we call hydraulic resistance. In addition, not only is the xylem pathway long, but the trees are tall and the water has to overcome gravity. Increased force is necessary to pull the water up to the highest leaves. This situation differs from a long hosepipe lying along the ground: it would have high resistance due to its length, but not the additional difficulty of being upright.

Fast-growing trees often have shorter life spans. To achieve their rapid growth, pioneer trees have wider xylem vessels, increasing their hydraulic efficiency but also increasing the risk of embolisms (air locks). Air locks in xylem vessels prevent water from being able to travel through them.

In contrast, very tall trees are often very long-lived. It is thought that this is partly because they are more likely to adopt a safe hydraulic design, with multiple narrow xylem vessels instead of a few wider ones.

This increased safety is counteracted by a decreased efficiency of water transport, which consequently limits growth rates. Tree height, therefore, may also be limited by the safety versus efficiency trade-off in xylem function ( Burgess et al, 2006 ).

The following two activities explore the trade-off that plants make between being efficient with water transport and having a safe design. Both activities can be adapted for students aged 15–18 with a wide range of abilities, but you should assess whether the students can perform all of the experiments or whether it is safer for the teacher to do the cutting. Each activity will take about 50 minutes.

Estimating maximum xylem vessel lengths

Comparing the lengths of the xylem vessel will allow students to predict their relative resistance to water flow.

• Selection of recently cut branches from a tree or shrub, including any leaves or side branches, up to 2 m in initial length. If the experiment is to be performed within a few hours of harvesting, keep the plant material in a plastic bag to avoid excessive water loss.
• Rubber/silicon tubing
• Cable ties or jubilee clips
• Sharp pruning shears or scissors
• 60 cm 3  syringes
• Large basin of tap water
• Cut a length of branch over 1 m, making sure the cut is clean and the end of the branch is not crushed. The branch will be much longer than the xylem vessels inside.
• Attach a 60 cm3 syringe, filled with air, to the proximal (wider) end of the branch using silicon tubing and cable ties as required.
• Pressurise the air in the syringe and branch by compressing the volume of air in the syringe by about half (e.g. from 60 cm3 of air to 30 cm3). This pressure must be maintained through steps 4–6.
• Hold the distal end of the branch under water.
• Use a hand lens to see if a steady stream of bubbles can be detected from the distal end of the branch.
• Progressively cut the distal end of the branch back by about 1 to 5 cm at a time, making sure each time that the end of the branch is not crushed and has a clean cut.
• When a stream of bubbles is observed, the length of the branch gives an approximate maximum length of the xylem vessels.

Safety Note

Students should be warned about the safety precautions necessary when using sharp objects. See also the general safety note .

Follow-up activity

Students could compare maximum xylem vessel lengths in a variety of different plants or different parts (roots, main and side branches) of the same plant. It is common for fast-growing plants to have longer xylem vessels and therefore fewer breaks between xylems. Can the students suggest why this might be?

About what happens

A branch contains several xylem vessels linked together. Between the xylem vessels are perforated wall plates. The fewer of these divisions there are, the lower the resistance and the faster water can travel.

A detailed study of vessel length in  Chrysanthemum stems  ( Nijsse et al, 2001 ) and in a wide range of shrubs and trees ( Jacobsen et al, 2012 ) can be used for cross-reference.

Measuring xylem hydraulic conductivity

Measurements of xylem hydraulic properties show how well plants can supply water to their leaves. It is possible to measure the hydraulic conductance of stems, branches and roots in the classroom with some simple, inexpensive equipment. To measure hydraulic conductivity, the branch length should be longer than the mean length of the xylem vessels (see previous activity).

• Selection of recently cut branches from a tree or shrub investigated in the previous experiment. Ensure that the pieces are longer than the longest xylem vessels measured. If the experiment is to be performed within a few hours of harvesting, keep the plant material in a plastic bag to avoid excessive water loss.
• Sharp secateurs, scissors or a large scalpel
• Chopping board
• Large basin of water
• Reservoir of degassed, distilled water in a container with a tap at the bottom. Degas the water by boiling it or using a vacuum pump for approximately 1h until all the gas has been expelled from the water. Air bubbles in water that is not degassed may block the xylem vessels.
• Hydrochloric acid
• 1 cm 3  pipette (a pipette with a 90o bend is most effective. A standard glass pipette can be bent in a very hot flame)
• 50 cm 3  plastic beaker
• Retort stand and clamp
• Balance (precision of at least 0.01 g)
• Stop watch or stop clock

1. Set up the apparatus as illustrated in the diagram above: 

a  Add hydrochloric acid to the degassed, distilled water to give a final concentration of 0.01 M. For example, add 0.5 cm 3  of 0.1 M HCl to 5 dm 3  degassed, distilled water. Hydrochloric acid prevents the long-term decline in conductance by reducing microbial growth in the xylem.

Remember to always add acid to water, not water to acid.

b  Fill the reservoir with the acidified water. Insert a piece of tubing, sealed at one end with a bung, into the top of the reservoir. The open tubing ensures a constant pressure head because even if the water level drops, the effective height of the reservoir will remain the same.

c  To the tap of the reservoir, add some tubing, fill with water from the reservoir, seal the open end and place into the large basin of water.

d  Close the tap.

e  Submerge the proximal end of the branch in the large basin of water. This is the end of the branch that was nearest to the main stem of the plant.

f  Cut approximately 3 cm off the proximal end of the branch under water to ensure that no air pockets remain in the xylem. Shave off the end of the cut using a sharp blade.

g  Connect the newly cut end of the branch to the water-filled tubing attached to the reservoir under water. If the bark is very rough, it can be stripped back prior to connection. A water-tight seal should be achieved using cable ties or jubilee clips if necessary, however do not over-tighten and compress the xylem vessels.

h  Submerge the other end of the branch in the tub of water.

i  Cut approximately 3 cm off the end of the branch under water to ensure that no air pockets remain in the xylem. Shave off the end of the cut using a sharp blade.

j  Measure and record the length of the branch. Ensure it is longer than the maximum xylem vessel length (see previous experience).

k  Connect the bent pipette to more rubber tubing and sub- merge into the basin of water.

l  Connect the newly cut end of the branch to the water-filled tubing attached to the pipette as above.

m  Fill the 50 cm 3  beaker with water and place on the pan balance.

n  Take the branch end and pipette out of the basin of water with the end of the pipette sealed.

o  Place the end of the pipette in the 50 cm 3  beaker on the balance.

p  Use the retort stand and clamp to hold the pipette in place. The tip of the pipette should not lean on the bottom of the beaker, but should be below the water level. This ensures that as the water drips through the branch, there is a smooth increase in the mass of water in the beaker.

2. Open the tap from the reservoir. 

3. Measure the mass of water every 30s for 3 min. 

4. Measure the effective height of the reservoir using the metre rule. This is the height from the bottom of the open tubing in the reservoir to the proximal end of the branch.

Students should be warned about the safety precautions necessary when using sharp objects and acids. See also the general safety note .

Hydraulic conductivity is measured as the mass of water flowing through the system per unit time per unit pressure gradient (Tyree & Ewers, 1991). The hydraulic conductivity of the branch, kh, is calculated using the following formula:

k h  = (flow rate x branch length)/hydrostatic pressure head

where the flow rate is measured in kilograms per second (kg/s); branch length in metres (m); and the pressure head in megaPascals (MPa). To calculate the flow rate, plot the mass of water (in kg) measured in step 3 against time (in s). The flow rate will be the gradient of the line of best fit (in kg/s). See  table 2  and  figure 1  for a worked example.

The hydrostatic pressure head is found by multiplying the effective height of the reservoir, measured in step 4, with the density of liquid and the acceleration due to gravity. The density of the acidified water can be assumed to be 1000 kg/m 3  (at room temperature) and a value of 9.81 m/s 2  can be used for acceleration due to gravity. Thus, with an effective height of the reservoir of 1m, the hydrostatic pressure head would be 1000 x 9.81 x 1 = 9810 Pa or 0.00981 MPa.

Remember, maximum hydraulic conductivity is only achieved if none of the xylem vessels are embolised (filled with air). To try to prevent this, branches can be flushed with water at a pressure of approximately 200 kPa for 20 min before measuring conductivity. Alternatively, ensure that branches are selected from well-watered trees and that the leaves are covered in a large plastic bag prior to measurement.

Follow-up experiments

Investigations on different levels of water stress on the same, or similar, branches would give an indication of plants that are more vulnerable to cavitation, or air bubbles. Hydraulic conductivity can change de- pending on environmental conditions, and the same species of plant that have adapted to different environments could be tested in the laboratory or in the field. Compare branch cross-sections of different diameter or those supporting different leaf areas.

Students could observe the effect on hydraulic conductivity of changing the branch length and relate this to the height of the plant. They could also investigate the effect on the flow rate of changing the height of the reservoir. The reservoir height (pushing force) could be considered as equal, but opposite, to the pulling force created by the low water potential in xylem vessels.

Did you know?

Xylems are essentially porous filters, and scientists think that they could be used to filter water and make it safe to drink. Earlier this year, a group at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the USA showed that a 3cm 3  piece of pine branch could act as a filter and remove 99.9 % of bacteria from water, at a rate of several litres a day. The technique isn’t perfect yet: viruses and chemical contamination can’t be stopped by twigs, but the work by  Boutilier et al. (2014)  suggests a cheap way to purify water in developing countries.

• Boutilier M.S.H., Lee J., Chambers V., Venkatesh V., Karnik R. (2014) Water Filtration Using Plant Xylem.  PLoS ONE   9(2) : e89934
• Burgess S.S., Pittermann J., Dawson T.E. (2006)  Hydraulic efficiency and safety of branch xylem increases with height in Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don) crowns .  Plant, Cell and Environment   29(2) : 229-239. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3040.2005.01415.x
• Jacobsen A.L., Pratt R.B., Tobin M.F., Hacke U.G., Ewers F.W. (2012)  A global analysis of xylem vessel lengths in woody plants .  American Journal of Botany   99 : 1583-1591 doi: 10.3732/ajb.1200140
• Nijsse J., van der Heijden G.W.A.M., van Leperen W., Keijzer C.J., van Meeteren U. (2001)  Xylem hydraulic conductivity to conduit dimensions along chrysanthemum stems.   Journal of Experimental Botany   52 : 319-327 doi: 10.1093/jexbot/52.355.319
• Ryan M.G., and Yoder B.J. (1997)  Hydraulic limits to tree height and tree growth .  BioScience   47(4) : 235-242 doi: 10.2307/1313077
• Tyree M.T., Ewers F.W. (1991) The hydraulic architecture of trees and other woody plants.  New Phytologist   19 : 345-360
• Koch G.W., Sillett S.C., Jennings G.M., Davis S.D. (2004)  The limits to tree height .  Nature  428 : 851–854. doi: 10.1038/nature02417; freely available

Clare van der Willigen has an MSc and a PhD in plant physiology from the University of Cape Town, South Africa. Following postdoctoral research on water stress in plants and aquaporins, she pursued her passion for teaching. She has worked in South Africa, France, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom, and is currently a senior examiner and teacher of many years’ experience.

The article describes two experiments that can easily be conducted in science classrooms or laboratories to study water movement in plants.

Although the procedures are easy to carry out, the concepts and knowledge that are explored aren’t so simple, but are appropriate for upper secondary-school students (aged 15-18). In my experience, there are not very many procedures that consider water movement for this age group, so many science teachers will welcome this article.

There are also relevant opportunities for interdisciplinary teaching involving mathematics in particular. It would be quite interesting to use this experiment as a starting point to introduce students to the development of a database and subsequent statistical analysis (not too complex). For example, students could estimate maximum xylem vessel lengths and measure xylem hydraulic conductivity of different plants and at different times (e.g. winter vs. summer). This database could be extended from year to year with other students. Such a strategy could help students to understand science as a collaborative activity – not only between different disciplines but also between different ‘generations’ of scientists.

Betina Lopes, Portugal

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Water’s Journey through the Human Body

Everyone’s taken a sip of water at least once in their lifetime. However, not everyone knows what happens when you drink water. How the human body processes water is an extremely complex process involving multiple organs—even ones beyond the digestive tract.

Here at Lipsey, we provide  office water delivery in Atlanta and as experts on what water can do for you, we are here to let you in on what water does and where it goes every time you drink. So, how does water travel through the body? What does its path look like?

It Begins with Thirst

This may seem quite obvious, but you won’t typically feel inclined to drink water unless you’re thirsty. When you start becoming dehydrated, your body will give you a few distinct signals. Your mouth might feel a bit dry, you might start coughing for no discernable reason, your skin will feel chalky, and you’ll feel oddly sluggish. These are all signs that your body is ready for a sip. However, for some, it’s not so straightforward. Executive dysfunction can cause many people to outright forget to drink water, even when their bodies are giving them all of the signs.

Sometimes they’ll simply forget; other times they won’t even make the connection between the symptoms and the problem. For these people, it may be necessary to set reminders just to get them to drink water. If you need constant nudge to hydrate, a smart app and water-rich food are among some ways to help you remember to drink water .

Entering the Body

The most optimal and commonplace method of entry is through the mouth. After a few gulps, your body should shut off the thirst response, leaving you with that refreshed feeling we all know and love. Here is where the process of water absorption in the body begins. With enough water in your body to start the hydration process, this should be where digestion starts, right?

Digestion vs. Absorption

Wrong. Water, unlike food, doesn’t get “digested”—there’s nothing much to digest anyways. Rather, water is absorbed through the tissues and into the surrounding cells. This process starts in the mouth and esophagus to an extent, keeping both areas moist and lubricated. However, it really kicks off once the water enters your stomach. Here, the body begins absorbing it into your bloodstream, where it will then be circulated throughout your entire body.

How much water gets absorbed from the stomach and how quickly it is absorbed is influenced in part by how much food has been ingested. If someone drinks water on an empty stomach, their water absorption rate is generally faster — sometimes as soon as 5 minutes after taking a sip. If the person eats a bunch of food before drinking water, the rate of absorption will slow down drastically, and absorption may take several hours. This is the same reason why doctors advise you to take some medications after meals—your body may absorb the dosage too quickly, causing potentially adverse effects.

Where the Stream Takes It

Though some water does stick around in the digestive tract to assist in the digestive process—particularly being a crucial element in digesting proteins—much of it is absorbed into the bloodstream. Some of it is absorbed through the stomach, but the majority of it is absorbed through the lining of the small intestine. With a length of around 20 feet, the small intestine is the organ most responsible for water absorption through its walls and into the bloodstream. Once it’s absorbed, the water will then go to cells all over the body, giving them the hydration they need to execute their everyday duties effectively.

So, the water is now in your bloodstream, traveling to different organs. What does it do once it gets to its destination?

If you know anything about your kidneys, it’s that they require a lot of water to function. However, their function seems to elude many people. As it happens, the kidneys’ primary function is to filter toxins from the body and expel them in the form of waste—that being urine. Water plays a key role in this filtration process, and a lack of water can ultimately lead to complications such as kidney disease and kidney stones—hard deposits of unabsorbed minerals that cause intense pain when passed through the urinary tract.

One of the ways the kidneys try to adapt to a lack of water is by concentrating the urine, giving it a higher waste-to-water ratio. This makes it more yellow in color and is exactly why checking the color of your urine is a tried and true way to determine your approximate level of hydration. Be mindful though: different lighting can make these colors look different, thus making this a somewhat inaccurate method under certain circumstances.

Other Functions

Though the kidneys are where water truly shines, it has other, lesser-known functions in the body as well. For instance: did you know some of the water travels directly to your brain? Not to be confused with hydrocephalus—a deadly condition where too much fluid gathers in the brain—water plays a key role in cognitive function. To run smoothly, brain cells require a careful balance of water and electrolytes; otherwise, their efficiency may suffer. You may lose your capacity to concentrate for extended periods of time if your brain is not functioning at its best due to dehydration. It could also impair your memory and cause mood swings. Drinking water is thus important in order to increase your brain’s performance.

And the list goes on: your skin’s natural glow and bounce, the lubricating fluid between your joints, the concentration of acid in your gut, the amount of sweat you produce, and even the consistency of your mucus can all boil down to how well-hydrated you are. Eventually, it will be excreted through waste or otherwise evaporated off of the skin, and you’ll need to replenish it. As electrolytes are also crucial in hydration, consider our office water delivery in Atlanta to help keep you and your coworkers at their peak. At Lipsey, our water is sourced directly from mountain springs, meaning it comes packed with minerals to give you the best possible hydration. From water dispensers to bottled water, we’ll make sure everyone is happily hydrated.

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June 27, 2019

What Do You Hear Underwater?

A submerged science activity from Science Buddies

By Science Buddies & Sabine De Brabandere

Make waves--underwater! Learn how sound travels differently in water than it does in the air. 

George Retseck

Key Concepts Physics Sound Waves Biology

Introduction Have you ever listened to noises underwater? Sound travels differently in the water than it does in the air. To learn more, try making your own underwater noises—and listening carefully. 

Background Sound is a wave created by vibrations. These vibrations create areas of more and less densely packed particles. So sound needs a medium to travel, such as air, water—or even solids. 

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Sound waves travel faster in denser substances because neighboring particles will more easily bump into one another. Take water, for example. There are about 800 times more particles in a bottle of water than there are in the same bottle filled with air. Thus sound waves travel much faster in water than they do in air. In freshwater at room temperature, for example, sound travels about 4.3 times faster than it does in air at the same temperature.

Sound traveling through air soon becomes less loud as you get farther from the source. This is because the waves’ energy quickly gets lost along the way. Sound keeps its energy longer when traveling through water because the particles can carry the sound waves better. In the ocean, for example, the sound of a humpback whale can travel thousands of miles!

Underwater sound waves reaching us at a faster pace and keeping their intensity longer seem like they should make us perceive those sounds as louder when we are also underwater. The human ear, however, evolved to hear sound in the air and is not as useful when submerged in water. Our head itself is full of tissues that contain water and can transmit sound waves when we are underwater. When this happens, the vibrations bypass the eardrum, the part of the ear that evolved to pick up sound waves in the air. 

Sound also interacts with boundaries between two different mediums, such as the surface of water. This boundary between water and air, for example, reflects almost all sounds back into the water. How will all these dynamics influence how we perceive underwater sounds? Try the activity to find out! 

Bathtub or swimming pool (a very large bucket can work, too)

Two stainless steel utensils (for example, spoons or tongs)

Two plastic utensils

Small ball 

Adult helper

An area that can get wet (if not performing the activity at a pool)

Floor cloth to cleanup spills (if not performing the activity at a pool)

Other materials to make underwater sounds (optional)

Access to a swimming pool (optional)

Internet access (optional)

Preparation

Fill the bathtub with lukewarm water—or head to the pool—and bring your helper and other materials.

Ask your helper to click one stainless steel utensil against another. Listen. How would you describe the sound? 

In a moment, your helper will click one utensil against the other underwater . Do you think you will hear the same sound? 

Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater. Listen. Does the sound appear to be louder or softer? Is what you hear different in other ways, too?

Submerge one ear in the water. Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater. Listen. How would you describe this sound? 

Ask your helper to click one utensil against the other underwater soon after you submerge your head. Take a deep breath, close your eyes and submerge your head completely or as much as you feel comfortable doing. Listen while you hold your breath underwater (come up for air when you need to!). Does the sound appear to be louder or softer? Does it appear to be different in other ways? 

Repeat this sequence but have your helper use two plastic utensils banging against each other instead.

Repeat the sequence again, but this time listen to a small ball being dropped into the water. Does the sound of a ball falling into the water change when you listen above or below water? Does your perception of this sound change? Why would this happen? 

Switch roles. Have your helper listen while you make the sounds. 

Discuss the findings you gathered. Do patterns appear? Can you conclude something about how humans perceive sounds when submerged in water? 

Extra : Test with more types of sounds: soft as well as loud sounds, high- as well as low-pitched sounds. Can you find more patterns?

Extra: To investigate what picks up the sound wave when you are submerged, use your fingers to close your ears or use earbuds when submerging your head. How does the sound change when you close off your ear canal underwater? Does the same happen when you close off your ear canal when you are above water? If not, why would this be different? 

Extra: Go to the swimming pool and listen to the sound of someone jumping into the water. Compare your perception of the sound when you are submerged with when your head is above the water. How does your perception change? Close your eyes. Can you tell where the person jumped into the water when submerged? Can you tell when you have your head above the water?

Extra: Research ocean sounds and how sounds caused by human activity impact aquatic animals.  

Observations and Results Was the sound softer when it was created underwater and you listened above the water? Did it sound muffled when you had only your ear submerged? Was it fuller when you had your head submerged? 

Sound travels faster in water compared with air because water particles are packed in more densely. Thus, the energy the sound waves carry is transported faster. This should make the sound appear louder. You probably perceived it as softer when you were not submerged, however, because the water surface is almost like a mirror for the sound you created. The sound most likely almost completely reflected back into the water as soon as it reached the surface. 

When you submerged only your ear, the sound probably still appeared muffled. This happens because the human ear is not good at picking up sound in water—after all, it evolved to pick up sound in air. 

When you submerged your head, the sound probably sounded fuller. That is because our head contains a lot of water, which allows the tissue to pick up underwater sound—without relying on the eardrum. It also explains why closing your ear canal makes almost no difference in the sound you pick up while you are underwater. 

If you tried to detect where the sound came from when submerged, you probably had a hard time. Our brain uses the difference in loudness and timing of the sound detected by each ear as a clue to infer where the sound came from. Because sound travels faster underwater and because you pick up sound with your entire head when you are submerged, your brain loses the cues that normally help you determine where the sound is coming from. 

More to Explore Discovery of Sound in the Sea , from the University of Rhode Island and the Inner Space Center Can You Hear Sounds in Outer Space? , from Science Buddies Talk through a String Telephone , from Scientific American Sound Localization , from Science Buddies  Ears: Do Their Design, Size and Shape Matter? , from Scientific American STEM Activities for Kids , from Science Buddies 

This activity brought to you in partnership with Science Buddies

Accessories and Gear

Owala water bottles: Your essential guide to stylish hydration in 2024

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Say hello to your new drinking buddies and discover the perfect Owala water bottle for you.

This article contains affiliate links. If you buy through these links, we may earn a small commission.

Photo: Amazon.sg

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Scott Marsh

Whether you’re a couch potato trudging to the office or a gym bro living the fitspo life, staying hydrated in Singapore’s humid climate is critical. Enter the reusable water bottle, that must-have eco-friendly accessory you used to flex in Primary school.  If you’re hunting for one, it’s likely that Owala water bottles have popped up on your radar. They’re not the only player in the hydrate-with-style game, but they’ve helped make hydration a thing.

• What sets Owala bottles apart
• The Owala lineup, at a glance
• Kids' bottles
• FreeSip bottles
• Accessories

WHAT MAKES OWALA WATER BOTTLES SO SPECIAL?

The Owala FreeSip was listed as one of Time.com’s best inventions of 2023. The FreeSip spout offers two drinking options – sip through the built-in straw or chug for all you’re worth through the spout.

Owala water bottles are ergonomic and come in sizes from 12oz to 40oz. Some limited editions can change hands for hundreds of dollars. They are made from stainless steel and Tritan, providing insulation for cold and/or hot drinks.

KIDS' WATER BOTTLES

Want to start Junior down the path to proper hydration? Owala’s lineup of bottles for children feature smaller capacities that are easier for the mini-me in your life to handle.

Owala Kids’ Tumbler, 12oz, Turtley Awesome (S$26.36)

The removable, reusable straw and wide opening make it easy to clean – a bonus for active kids. This version is made from stainless steel but a 15oz plastic bottle is also available. It has a dishwasher-safe lid and hand-washable cup.

• Capacity: 12oz (355ml)
• BPA, lead, and phthalate-free
• Dishwasher-safe lid and hand-washable cup

Owala Kids’ Flip, 14oz, Mint Chocolate Chip (S$28.73; Usual Price: S$35.90)

This insulated stainless-steel flip-top water bottle features a hideaway straw with locking lid. It can be used one-handed. It’s leak-proof when closed and locked and has an integrated carry loop. Double-wall insulation keeps drinks cold for up to 24 hours (it’s not meant to be used with hot liquids). Its wide opening makes it easy to clean.

• Capacity: 14oz (414ml)
• Dishwasher-safe

FREESIP WATER BOTTLES

Sip or swig? Whatever your choice, the FreeSip spout offers the best of both worlds. Sip through the built-in straw or chug through the spout.

Owala FreeSip Tritan, 25oz, Very, Very Dark (S$25.91; Usual Price: S$30)

The FreeSip spout is paired with a 25oz (739ml) Tritan bottle.

• BPA- and phthalate-free
• Dishwasher safe
• Stain and odour-resistant.

Owala FreeSip Twist, 24oz, Camo Cool (S$33.22; Usual Price: S$41)

This combines the FreeSip spout with a narrower bottle. It's ideal for cup holders, small water-bottle pockets or bags. This triple-layer insulated bottle keeps drinks cold for up to 24 hours and is also great for carbonated and hot drinks.

• Capacity: 24oz (710ml)

Owala FreeSip, 24oz, Shy Marshmallow (S$35.03; Usual Price: S$44.94)

A durable, leakproof insulated water bottle is arguably your most important hydration companion. Enter the 24oz (710ml) Owala FreeSip, which keeps your drinks cold for up to 24 hours thanks to double-walled insulation. It’s also available as part of a Star Wars collab (S$50.95) and 32-oz capacity (S$51.41; Usual Price S$53.94).

• 24oz (710ml) capacity
• BPA, lead and phthalate-free

If you’re constantly driving, want something that fits into cup holders and is easy to hold, you may prefer a tumbler.

Owala SmoothSip, 10oz, Watermelon Breeze (S$25.64; Usual Price: S$29)

Owala says this double-wall insulated stainless steel tumbler keeps drinks hot for up to six hours and cold for up to 24 hours. Its strawless open spout is splash resistant and has been designed for hot beverages. It’s also available in a 20oz capacity (S$34.34; Usual Price: S$50.97)

• Capacity: 10oz (295ml)

Owala Tumbler, 40oz, Bunny Hop (S$46.95; Usual Price: S$56.58)

Drivers will appreciate this tumbler’s 40oz (1.18L) capacity, especially on longer trips. Its two-in-one lid makes it easier to sip through the removable straw or swig through its opening. Double-wall insulation helps keep drinks colder longer and its wide opening makes it easy to add ice and clean. It’s also available in 24oz (710ml) capacity (S$37.26; Usual Price: S$41.00). The Tumblers’ large handle makes them easy to hold but also means they take up a lot of space in bags.

• Capacity: 40oz (1.18L)

Shop here .

ACCESSORIES

Owala Bottle Boot, 24oz, Bright Blue (S$17.80; Usual Price: S$24.11)

This silicone anti-slip boot protects the base of your FreeSip stainless steel bottle from scuffs, scratches and dents. It’s also available for 32oz and 40oz Owala FreeSip bottles and doesn’t fit FreeSip Twist, Tumblers and Tritan bottles.

Replacement Straws for Owala 14/19/24/32/40oz Stainless Steel Water Bottle, 6pcs, Pink, Red, Purple  (S$14.98)

This set of replacement straws is great if you own several Owala bottles. It fits 14oz-40oz bottles. Just follow the markings and cut to the right length.

Meeti Neoprene Insulated Water Bottle Carrier Bag for Owala FreeSip 24oz and 32oz, Teal (S$14.56)

This machine-washable bottle carrier protects 24oz and 32oz FreeSip bottles and frees up your hands. While available in a variety of designs, they cover most of your bottle so you can’t flex your prized limited-edition drop.

• Dimensions: 19.5cm (height) x 7.3cm (diameter)
• Adjustable shoulder strap and hand strap
• Fits 24oz and 32oz FreeSip bottles

Water bottles: From Owala to Oasis, these 11 essential bottles will help you stay hydrated in the office and gym

These durable everyday carry Bellroy bags and accessories elevate office and travel chic for savvy workers

Can hot or carbonated beverages be used in the FreeSip water bottle?

The Stainless Steel FreeSip water bottle shouldn’t be used with hot, carbonated, or perishable liquids.  If your go-to drinks are hot or carbonated beverages, look at one of their tumblers or the FreeSip Twist.

Are FreeSip water bottles dishwasher safe?

The lids of stainless steel bottles are  dishwasher safe and the straws can go in the silverware bin. While the cups are dishwasher safe, Owala recommends hand-washing them to protect the finish.

Tritan plastic bottles are  top-rack dishwasher safe.

Prices are accurate as of the time of publication. Discount codes for some products are available for eligible Prime members.

Not a Prime member yet? Join Prime or start a 30-day free trial at Amazon.sg/prime . Prime members enjoy free one-day domestic delivery and free international delivery on eligible items.

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What does it mean to do the greatest good for the greatest number? When the Los Angeles Aqueduct opened in 1913, it rerouted the Owens River from its natural path through an Eastern California valley hundreds of miles south to LA, enabling a dusty town to grow into a global city. But of course, there was a price. Today on the show: Greed, glory, and obsession; what the water made possible, and at what cost.

Richard Potashin, former National Park Service ranger at Manzanar National Historic Site and Owens Valley resident. Fred Barker, former waterworks engineer at the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power and unofficial LADWP historian.

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